Solutions to exercises

Solutions to exercises#

Solution to Exercise 3

Synthesis is the process of translating a behavioral code to simple digital logic components like gates and flip-flops, also called netlist.

Solution to Exercise 4

Implementation comes after synthesis. Netlist is the output of the synthesis step. A netlist needs to be mapped to the logic primitives available on the target FPGA and then routed. Mapping & routing is called implementation.

Solution to Exercise 5

Gate-level modeling does not require synthesis. It is the lowest-level of modeling that SV supports.

Netlist is similar to assembler code, i.e., instructions. Instructions can be directly fed to a processor and it does not need any translation. Compared to instructions, a netlist still needs to be mapped and routed, however.

Some reasons to use gate-level modeling:

  1. We have a gate level description of a logic circuit, e.g., an obfuscated circuit.

  2. We want to debug the circuit at the lowest-level

  3. We want to optimize a circuit at the lowest-level

We should not write code at this level if we do not need to.

Solution to Exercise 1

  • SV is for describing and simulating digital systems and is compiled to static logic gates. SV is not for generating machine instructions

  • SV code is typically executed in parallel, there may be no specific order in how the code is executed.

Solution to Exercise 2

  • Verilog was not enough to cater the needs of digital designs that have been continuously getting more complex

  • SystemVerilog adds some modeling and verification features

  • Verilog and Systemverilog were integrated in 2009 into the language Systemverilog

Solution to Exercise 6

It can store 0, 1, X (don’t care or unknown) or Z (high-impedance or floating).

Solution to Exercise 7

  • these are typically relevant in the simulation

  • assigning X to a value means that we don’t care if it is 0 or 1. The tool can use this information for optimizations

  • X is also the default state in simulations. During simulation an X shows that a signal has not been properly initialized.

  • X is also used if two signals drive (there are also different strengths, but we keep it simple here) another signal with different values at the same time.

  • Z is used if a signal is not driven by any strength. This is useful for modeling busses (e.g., CAN) where multiple participants can drive the same signal

Solution to Exercise 8

  • It is not 4-state. Using 4-state logic may ease the verification of circuits in simulation

  • We should use int only in for loops

Solution to Exercise 9

  • variable is one of the two data object groups in SystemVerilog beside nets. wire is a kind of net, i.e., a net type. (SV17-6.5 Nets and variables)

    • Examples of other net types are are uwire, tri, wor (SV-2017-6.6 Net types)

  • A net (consequently also wire) can be assigned to only in a continuous assignment, but not procedurally

  • var is for data storage. It can be assigned to using procedural assignments including procedural continuous assignments. var can be also written to using a continuous assignment like wire. var keeps the last value that has been written to.

    • continuous assignment assigns values to nets or variables (SV17-10.2 Assignment statements - Overview)

    • procedural … to variables (ditto)

    • procedural continuous assignments are procedural statements which can be used outside procedural blocks (e.g., always, initial) to continuously drive a net or variable. These are: assign, deassign, force, release. (SV17-10.6 Procedural continuous assignments)

Solution to Exercise 10

  • logic can be both a net or variable. logic is a data type whereas nets and variables are data object groups.

  • If we write logic x or var x this implicitly means: var logic x (SV17-6.8 Variable declarations).

  • If we want a net with a logic data type, then we can write wire x, which implies wire logic x, because logic is the default data type.

Solution to Exercise 11

  • logic is the most basic data type for modeling signals

  • When we declare a new signal as logic, then this signal is a variable as default (instead of net)

  • Compared to nets, variables cannot have multiple (simultaneous) drivers

  • Typically we don’t have multiple drivers on a signal (e.g., inside the FPGA) Actually we could also use var instead of logic for declaring logic signals if we wanted to shorten our code, however most developers (seem to) know logic instead of var.

Solution to Exercise 12

These are primitives that are included in SystemVerilog as builtin modules

Solution to Exercise 13

  • m m_i(.a(x), .b(y), .c(z)) or m m_i(.c(z), .b(y), .a(x)): named assignment. a, b, c are module ports and the rest are signals that we connect to the ports

  • m m_i(x, y, z): positional assignment

  • m m_i(.a, .b, .c): automatic assignment to the signals a, b and c.

  • m m_i(.*): automatic assignment to the signals a, b and c (if m has the ports a, b and c)

  • m m_i(.*, .c(x)) automatic assignment with an exception of .c(x)

  • m m_i(.a, .b, .c(x)) automatic assignment with an exception of .c(x)

Solution to Exercise 14

assign o = sel ? a : b;

Solution to Exercise 15

assign x = ~y;

Solution to Exercise 16

assign x = a && b ? 2 : 3;

Solution to Exercise 17

assign light = ^switches;

Solution to Exercise 18

assign f = {a, {3{a, b, c}}, b};

Solution to Exercise 20

The signal changes every 1 time-unit. So signal’s period will be 2 time-units. The frequency is \(\frac{1}{2\cdot timeunits}\). The default time unit is ps, so this equals to 500 GHz.

Solution to Exercise 22

repo:code/seven-segment-controller

Listing 86 code/seven-segment-controller/seven_segment_controller_pkg.sv#
package seven_segment_controller_pkg;
  localparam int unsigned
    DigitCountLg2 = 2,
    DigitCount = 2 ** DigitCountLg2,
    SegmentCount = 7,
    MaxReprNumber = 10 ** DigitCount - 1,
    BcdCount = $clog2(
      10
  );

  typedef logic [BcdCount-1 : 0] bcd_t;
  // Single BCD digit

  typedef logic [$bits(bcd_t) * DigitCount - 1 : 0] bcds_t;
  // Many BCD digits

  typedef logic [$clog2(MaxReprNumber) - 1 : 0] number_t;
  typedef logic [SegmentCount-1 : 0] segment_t;

  segment_t bcd2seg[10] = '{
      0: 'b0111111,
      1: 'b0000110,
      2: 'b1011011,
      3: 'b1001111,
      4: 'b1100110,
      5: 'b1101101,
      6: 'b1111101,
      7: 'b0000111,
      8: 'b1111111,
      9: 'b1101111
  };  //   gfedcba
  // Converts a BCD to its seven segment representation.
  //  a
  // f b
  //  g
  // e c
  //  d

  function automatic bcds_t bin2bcd(number_t bin);
    // Converts a binary digit to its BCD representation.
    // Uses double-dabble algorithm (add 3 if greater than 4, then shift).
    // https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_dabble

    bcds_t bcds = '{default: 0};
    for (int i = 0; i < $bits(bin); ++i) begin
      // Check every BCD digit if > 4
      for (int j = 0; j < DigitCount; ++j) begin
        // $displayh(" i: ", i, " j: ", j,
        //     " bcds: ", bcds[BcdCount*(j+1)-1 -:BcdCount]);
        // For debugging
        if (bcds[BcdCount*(j+1)-1-:BcdCount] > 4) bcds[BcdCount*(j+1)-1-:BcdCount] += 3;
      end
      // Shift
      bcds = {bcds[$left(bcds)-1 : 0], bin[$left(bin)-i]};
    end
    return bcds;
  endfunction
endpackage
Listing 87 code/seven-segment-controller/seven_segment_controller.sv#
// Seven segment controller for unsigned integers
// - Uses only seven segments without dot or colon.
// - Seven segment signals are shared among digits.
module seven_segment_controller
  import seven_segment_controller_pkg::*;
(
    input clk,
    rst,
    input number_t number,
    output logic [DigitCount - 1 : 0] digit,  // Selects currently active digit
    output segment_t segment  // Currently active segments
);

logic[DigitCountLg2 - 1 : 0] digit_addr;
// Digit address stores the current digit id which is being illuminated. For
// example 1 would be the second least significant BCD digit. In every clock
// cycle the digit address is incremented which in turn determines which
// segments to illuminate dependent on the input `number`.

always_ff @(posedge clk, posedge rst) begin
    digit_addr <= rst ? 0 : digit_addr + 1;
    digit <=
        rst ? 1 : {digit[$left(digit) -1 : 0],
                   digit[$left(digit)]
                   };
    // `digit` is initialized with 1 and continuously shifted to the left.
    // If `digit` would be created combinationally using `digit_addr`, then
    // the more significant digits (e.g., 3 and 4) will be faded out, because
    // the more significant digit signals will be less active compared to the
    // less significant signals. The address logic requires more time to
    // propagate to the more significant bits.
end

assign segment = bcd2seg[
    { bin2bcd(number) }
        [BcdCount * digit_addr +: BcdCount]
                        ];
endmodule
Listing 88 code/seven-segment-counter-test-boolean/seven_segment_counter_test_boolean.sv#
import seven_segment_controller_pkg::*;
module seven_segment_counter_test_boolean #(
    int unsigned CLKDIV_FOR_1MS = 100e6 / 1000,  // 1 ms
    int unsigned MAX_NUMBER = 9999
) (
    input clk,
    input [3:0] btn,
    output [3:0] D0_AN,
    D1_AN,
    output [7:0] D0_SEG,
    D1_SEG
);
  logic clk_1ms, rst;
  clkdiv #(CLKDIV_FOR_1MS) clkdiv_1ms (
      .i(clk),
      .o(clk_1ms)
  );
  logic [$clog2(MAX_NUMBER+1)-1:0] cntr;
  logic [DigitCount -1 : 0] digit0, digit1;
  logic [SegmentCount - 1 : 0] segment0, segment1;

  // Counter
  always_ff @(posedge clk_1ms, posedge rst) cntr <= rst ? 0 : cntr + 1;

  seven_segment_controller ssc0 (
      .clk(clk_1ms),
      .number(cntr),
      .segment(segment0),
      .digit(digit0),
      .*
  );
  seven_segment_controller ssc1 (
      .clk(clk_1ms),
      .number(cntr),
      .segment(segment1),
      .digit(digit1),
      .*
  );
  assign D0_AN = ~digit0;
  assign D1_AN = ~digit1;
  // Invert because digit signals are connected to PMOS transistors, which are active-low.

  assign D0_SEG[6:0] = ~segment0;
  assign D1_SEG[6:0] = ~segment1;
  // Segment signals are also active-low

  assign rst = |btn;
endmodule

Solution to Exercise 25

The difference is that we output the data asynchronously:

Listing 89 code/ram_read_same_clock_cycle/ram.sv#
  always_ff @(posedge clk) begin
    if (wen) mem[din_addr] <= din;
  end
  assign dout = mem[dout_addr];
endmodule

When we look at the synthesis logs:

sed -n '/Final Mapping Report/,/Finished/p' prj/prj.runs/synth_1/runme.log
Distributed RAM: Final Mapping Report
+-----------------+---------------+-----------+----------------------+-------------+
|Module Name      | RTL Object    | Inference | Size (Depth x Width) | Primitives  | 
+-----------------+---------------+-----------+----------------------+-------------+
|ram_boolean_test | ram_i/mem_reg | Implied   | 16 x 4               | RAM32M x 1  | 
+-----------------+---------------+-----------+----------------------+-------------+

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Finished ROM, RAM, DSP, Shift Register and Retiming Reporting

Solution to Exercise 26

repo:code/sound_player

Listing 90 code/sound_player/sound_player.sv#
module sound_player #(
    string ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "sound.mem",
    int unsigned ROM_DEPTH_LG2 = 4
) (
    input  clk,
    rst,
    output o
);
  typedef enum {
    INIT_ROM_ADDR,
    SET_DIVIDER_VALUE,
    SET_DURATION,
    WAIT
  } st_t;
  st_t st, stn;
  integer unsigned divide_by, divide_byn, duration, durationn;
  logic wen = 0;
  logic [$bits(divide_by)-1 : 0] din = 0, dout;
  logic [ROM_DEPTH_LG2-1 : 0] din_addr = 0, dout_addr, dout_addrn;
  type (dout) wait_cntr, wait_cntrn;

  clkdiv clkdiv (
      .i(clk),
      .o(o),
      .divide_by(divide_by)
  );
  ram #(
      .DEPTH_LG2(ROM_DEPTH_LG2),
      .WORD_SIZE($bits(divide_by)),
      .INIT_HEX_FILE(ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE)
  ) rom (
      .*
  );

  always_ff @(posedge clk, posedge rst) begin
    st <= rst ? st.first : stn;
    dout_addr <= rst ? 0 : dout_addrn;
    divide_by <= rst ? 0 : divide_byn;
    duration <= rst ? 0 : durationn;
    wait_cntr <= rst ? 0 : wait_cntrn;
  end
  always_comb begin
    stn = st;
    divide_byn = divide_by;
    durationn = duration;
    dout_addrn = dout_addr;

    unique case (st)
      INIT_ROM_ADDR: begin
        // Note that dout_addr is 0 in this cycle and RAM requires one cycle
        // to respond, so the data that we receive in next cycle will be mem[0]
        dout_addrn = dout_addr + 1;
        stn = st.next;
      end
      SET_DIVIDER_VALUE: begin
        divide_byn = dout;
        dout_addrn = dout_addr + 1;  // For reading the next divider value
        stn = st.next;
      end
      SET_DURATION: begin
        wait_cntrn = dout;
        if (dout == 0) stn = INIT_ROM_ADDR;  // If duration zero, then skip
        else stn = st.next;
      end
      WAIT: begin
        wait_cntrn = wait_cntr - 1;
        if (wait_cntr == 1) begin
          stn = INIT_ROM_ADDR;
        end
      end
    endcase
  end
endmodule
Listing 91 code/sound_player/tb.sv#
module tb #(
    string ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "test_data.mem",
    int unsigned ROM_DEPTH_LG2 = 3
);
  logic clk = 1, rst, o;
  always #1 clk = !clk;

  sound_player #(
      .ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE,
      .ROM_DEPTH_LG2
  ) dut (
      .*
  );

  //FIXME Somehow dut.WAIT does not work
  // probably related to https://github.com/verilator/verilator/issues/5229
  typedef enum {
    INIT_ROM_ADDR,
    SET_DIVIDER_VALUE,
    SET_DURATION,
    WAIT
  } st_t;
  //FIXME

  typedef type (dut.dout_addr) addr_t;
  task static verify_period_and_duration(addr_t clkdiv_addr);
    fork
      // Create two parallel processes that wait for changes in the output
      // (`o`) and state (`dut.st`). Waiting for changes in a single process
      // would be less readable.
      begin
        time start_time, period;
        let clkdiv = dut.rom.mem[clkdiv_addr];
        if (clkdiv != 0) begin  // Skip if div zero
          // Period should be (2 * clkdiv_data_from_the_rom)
          @(posedge o) start_time = $time;
          @(posedge o) period = $time - start_time;
          assert (period == 2 * time'(clkdiv))
          else $error("period = %d != 2 * (mem = %d)", period, clkdiv);
        end
      end
      begin
        time start_time, time_passed;
        let duration = dut.rom.mem[clkdiv_addr+1];
        if (duration != 0) begin  // Skip if duration zero
          // Wait state duration must be (2 * duration_data_from_the_rom)
          @(dut.st == WAIT) start_time = $time;
          @(dut.st) time_passed = $time - start_time;
          assert (time_passed == 2 * time'(dut.rom.mem[clkdiv_addr+1]))
          else $error("time_passed = %d != 2 * (duration = %d)", time_passed, duration);
        end
      end
    join
    $display("[%4d] ✔️  clkdiv_addr %d", $time, clkdiv_addr);
  endtask

  initial begin
    // Iterate over even addresses
    for (int unsigned addr = 0; addr < 2 ** (ROM_DEPTH_LG2 - 1); ++addr)
    verify_period_and_duration(addr_t'(addr * 2));

    // Dut should start over from the beginning of the ROM
    for (int unsigned addr = 0; addr < 2 ** (ROM_DEPTH_LG2 - 1); ++addr)
    verify_period_and_duration(addr_t'(addr * 2));
    $finish;
  end

  import util::dump_and_timeout;
  initial dump_and_timeout(1000);
endmodule
Listing 92 code/sound_player_boolean/sound_player_boolean.sv#
module sound_player_boolean #(
    string ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "sound.mem",
    int unsigned ROM_DEPTH_LG2 = 6
) (
    input clk,
    output left_audio_out,
    right_audio_out,
    input [3:0] btn,
    input [15:0] sw
);
  logic mono_out;
  sound_player #(
      .ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE(ROM_INIT_HEX_FILE),
      .ROM_DEPTH_LG2(ROM_DEPTH_LG2)
  ) sound_player (
      .clk(clk),
      .rst(|btn),
      .o  (mono_out)
  );
  assign left_audio_out  = sw[15] & mono_out;
  assign right_audio_out = sw[15] & mono_out;
endmodule

sound.mem

Solution to Exercise 27

Listing 93 code/expression-bit-length-examples/m.sv#
module m;
  logic [4:0] i = 1;
  `define E(expr) $write(i++); $write($bits(expr)); $write(" ➡️  "); $display(expr)
  logic [1:0] w2 = 2;
  logic [3:0] w4 = 14;
  logic [4:0] w5;

  // verilator lint_off WIDTHEXPAND
  // verilator lint_off WIDTHTRUNC
  initial begin
    `E(-1);
    `E(3'(-1));
    `E(w2 * w2);
    $display("🟠");

    `E(w2 * w4);
    `E(w2 * w4 + 0);
    `E(~w4);
    $display("🟡");

    `E(w2 >= w4);
    `E(w2 && w4);
    `E(1 | 0);
    $display("🟢");

    `E(^w4);
    `E(^w4 + 1);
    `E(w4 ** w2);
    $display("🔵");

    `E(w2 >> 1);  // >> is logical shift
    `E(w2 >>> 1);  // >>> is arithmetic shift
    `E($signed(w2) >> 1);
    `E($signed(w2) >>> 1);
    $display("🟣");

    `E(w2 ? w4 : w2);
    `E({w2, w4});
    `E({2{w2, 1'b1}});
    $display("🟤");

    `E(w4 + w2);
    `E((w4 + w2) >> 1);
    `E((w4 + w2 + 0) >> 1);
    w5 = w4 + w2;
    `E(w5);
    $display("⚫");

    $finish;
  end
endmodule
🟩 Simulation start
 1         32 ➡️           -1
 2          3 ➡️  -1
 3          2 ➡️  0
🟠
 4          4 ➡️  12
 5         32 ➡️          28
 6          4 ➡️   1
🟡
 7          1 ➡️  0
 8          1 ➡️  1
 9         32 ➡️            1
🟢
10          1 ➡️  1
11         32 ➡️           2
12          4 ➡️   4
🔵
13          2 ➡️  1
14          2 ➡️  1
15          2 ➡️   1
16          2 ➡️  -1
🟣
17          4 ➡️  14
18          6 ➡️  46
19          6 ➡️  45
🟤
20          4 ➡️   0
21          4 ➡️   0
22         32 ➡️           8
23          5 ➡️  16
⚫
- m.sv:49: Verilog $finish

Solution to Exercise 28

repo:code/riscv-single-cycle-inst-i repo:code/riscv-single-cycle-inst-i-boolean

Most of the instructions (1) work with signed arithmetic and (2) do a sign extension. To save $signed calls, we can use logic signed for the immediates and the register file:

Listing 94 code/riscv-single-cycle-inst-i-boolean/mp_boolean.sv#
module mp_boolean (
    input clk,
    input [3:0] btn,
    output logic [15:0] led
);
  logic rst;
  mp #(
      .MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE("program.mem"),
      .MEM_DEPTH_LG2(4)
  ) mp_i (
      .*
  );
  always_comb begin
    led = 0;
    for (int reg_id = 10; reg_id <= 19; ++reg_id) led[reg_id-10] = mp_i.rf[reg_id][0];
  end
  assign rst = |btn;
endmodule
Listing 95 code/riscv-single-cycle-inst-i/mp.sv#
// verilator lint_off WIDTHEXPAND
import mp_pkg::*;
import riscv_instr::*;

module mp #(
    string MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "",  // Only used if non-empty
    int unsigned MEM_DEPTH_LG2 = 10  // In bytes
) (
    input clk,
    rst
);
  byte mem[2**MEM_DEPTH_LG2];
  word_signed rf[RegfileSize], rfn[RegfileSize];  // Register file
  word pc, pcn;  // Program counter
  word inst;  // Current instruction

  assign inst = {mem[pc+3], mem[pc+2], mem[pc+1], mem[pc]};

  initial
    if (MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE.len != 0) begin
      $readmemh(MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE, mem);
      $display("Initialized memory using %s.", MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE);
    end

  always_ff @(posedge clk, posedge rst) begin
    pc <= rst ? 0 : pcn;
    rf <= rst ? '{default: '0} : rfn;
  end

  // Variables used in instruction parsing
  i_inst_t i_inst;
  j_inst_t j_inst;
  always_comb begin
    rfn = rf;
    pcn = pc + 4;  // Increment as default

    unique casez (inst)
      // Integer register-immediate instructions
      ADDI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] + i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      SLTI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] < i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      SLTIU: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = $unsigned(rf[i_inst.rs1]) < $unsigned(32'(i_inst.imm11_0));
        // imm11_0 is sign extended before unsigned comparison
      end
      ANDI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] & i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      ORI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] | i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      XORI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] ^ i_inst.imm11_0;
      end

      JAL: begin
        j_inst = j_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = pc + assemble_j_imm(j_inst);
        rfn[j_inst.rd] = pc + 4;
      end
    endcase

    // Hardwire rf[0] to zero
    rfn[0] = 0;
  end
endmodule
Listing 96 code/riscv-single-cycle-inst-i-boolean/mp_boolean.sv#
module mp_boolean (
    input clk,
    input [3:0] btn,
    output logic [15:0] led
);
  logic rst;
  mp #(
      .MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE("program.mem"),
      .MEM_DEPTH_LG2(4)
  ) mp_i (
      .*
  );
  always_comb begin
    led = 0;
    for (int reg_id = 10; reg_id <= 19; ++reg_id) led[reg_id-10] = mp_i.rf[reg_id][0];
  end
  assign rst = |btn;
endmodule

Solution to Exercise 29

repo:code/riscv-single-cycle

Listing 97 code/riscv-single-cycle/mp_pkg.sv#
package mp_pkg;
  localparam int unsigned XLen = 32, RegfileSize = 32;
  typedef logic [XLen-1 : 0] word;
  typedef logic signed [XLen-1 : 0] word_signed;
  typedef logic signed [31:2] pc_t;  // Assume instructions are 4byte-aligned

  // Instruction fields
  typedef logic [$clog2(RegfileSize)-1:0] reg_id_t;
  typedef logic [6:0] opcode_t;
  typedef logic [2:0] funct3_t;
  // `opcode`, `funct*` are only used for decoding, so they are not used as
  // inputs for the ALU. So these fields are also named `unused*` in the
  // following instruction definitions.
  // Note that fields not used by the ALU have grey color in the ISA manual.

  // All field names chosen according to the ISA manual
  typedef struct packed {
    logic signed [11:0] imm11_0;
    reg_id_t rs1;
    funct3_t unused1;
    reg_id_t rd;
    opcode_t unused2;
  } i_inst_t;  // Immediate

  let shamt(imm11_0) = $unsigned(
      imm11_0[4:0]
  );  // Immediate shift instructions only use 5 bits of the immediate

  typedef struct packed {
    logic signed [31:12] imm31_12;
    reg_id_t rd;
    opcode_t unused2;
  } u_inst_t;  // Upper-immediate

  typedef struct packed {
    logic [20:20] imm20;
    logic [10:1] imm10_1;
    logic [11:11] imm11;
    logic [19:12] imm19_12;
    reg_id_t rd;
    opcode_t unused;
  } j_inst_t;  // Jump
  // J instruction is a variant of U

  // verilator lint_off UNUSEDSIGNAL
  function automatic logic signed [20:0] assemble_j_imm(j_inst_t i);
    // verilator lint_on UNUSEDSIGNAL
    return $signed({i.imm20, i.imm19_12, i.imm11, i.imm10_1, 1'b0});
  endfunction

  typedef struct packed {
    logic [6:0] unused1;
    reg_id_t rs2, rs1;
    funct3_t unused2;
    reg_id_t rd;
    opcode_t unused3;
  } r_inst_t;  // Register-register

  typedef struct packed {
    logic         imm12;
    logic [10:5]  imm10_5;
    reg_id_t      rs2,     rs1;
    funct3_t      unused1;
    logic [4:1]   imm4_1;
    logic [11:11] imm11;
    opcode_t      unused2;
  } b_inst_t;  // Branch
  // B instruction is a variant of S

  // verilator lint_off UNUSEDSIGNAL
  function automatic logic signed [12:0] assemble_b_imm(b_inst_t i);
    // verilator lint_on UNUSEDSIGNAL
    return $signed({i.imm12, i.imm11, i.imm10_5, i.imm4_1, 1'b0});
  endfunction

  typedef struct packed {
    logic [11:5] imm11_5;
    reg_id_t     rs2,     rs1;
    funct3_t     unused1;
    logic [4:0]  imm4_0;
    opcode_t     unused2;
  } s_inst_t;  // Store

  // verilator lint_off UNUSEDSIGNAL
  function automatic logic signed [11:0] assemble_s_imm(s_inst_t i);
    // verilator lint_on UNUSEDSIGNAL
    return $signed({i.imm11_5, i.imm4_0});
  endfunction
endpackage
Listing 98 code/riscv-single-cycle/mp.sv#
// verilator lint_off WIDTHEXPAND
// verilator lint_off WIDTHTRUNC
import mp_pkg::*;
import riscv_instr::*;

module mp #(
    string MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "",  // Only used if non-empty
    int unsigned MEM_DEPTH_LG2 = 10  // In bytes
) (
    input clk,
    rst
);
  byte mem[2**MEM_DEPTH_LG2];
  word_signed mem_waddr, mem_wdata;
  logic mem_wen;
  word_signed rf[RegfileSize], rfn[RegfileSize];  // Register file
  word_signed pc, pcn;  // Program counter
  word inst;  // Current instruction

  // assign inst = word'({<< byte{mem[pc+:4]}});
  // Unpacked array slicing not supported in Verilator 2024-05-22
  assign inst = {mem[pc+3], mem[pc+2], mem[pc+1], mem[pc]};

  initial begin
    // Read program and data memfile from command line in simulation only.
    // Synthesis cannot initialize memory using $value$plusargs (presumably).
`ifndef SYNTHESIS
    string mem_file;
    if ($value$plusargs("mem-file=%s", mem_file)) begin
      $readmemh(mem_file, mem);
      $display("Initialized memory using %s.", mem_file);
    end
`else
    if (MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE.len) begin
      $readmemh(MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE, mem);
      $display("Initialized memory using %s.", MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE);
    end
`endif
  end
  // [valueplusargs-block-end]

  always_ff @(posedge clk, posedge rst) begin
    pc <= rst ? 0 : pcn;
    rf <= rst ? '{default: '0} : rfn;
    if (rst);
    else
      unique casez (inst)
        SW: {mem[mem_waddr+3], mem[mem_waddr+2], mem[mem_waddr+1], mem[mem_waddr]} <= mem_wdata;
        SH: {mem[mem_waddr+1], mem[mem_waddr]} <= mem_wdata[15:0];
        SB: mem[mem_waddr] <= mem_wdata[7:0];
        default: ;
      endcase
  end

  // Variables used in instruction parsing
  i_inst_t i_inst;
  u_inst_t u_inst;
  j_inst_t j_inst;
  r_inst_t r_inst;
  b_inst_t b_inst;
  s_inst_t s_inst;
  always_comb begin
    rfn = rf;
    pcn = pc + 4;  // Increment as default

    mem_waddr = 0;
    mem_wdata = 0;
    mem_wen = 0;

    unique case (inst) inside
      // Integer register-immediate instructions
      ADDI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] + i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      SLTI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] < i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      SLTIU: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = $unsigned(rf[i_inst.rs1]) < $unsigned(32'(i_inst.imm11_0));
        // imm11_0 is sign extended before unsigned comparison
      end
      ANDI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] & i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      ORI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] | i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      XORI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] ^ i_inst.imm11_0;
      end
      SLLI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] << $unsigned(i_inst.imm11_0[4:0]);
        // All shift instructions use the last 5 bits for the shift amount
      end
      SRLI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] >> $unsigned(i_inst.imm11_0[4:0]);
      end
      SRAI: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = rf[i_inst.rs1] >>> $unsigned(i_inst.imm11_0[4:0]);
      end
      LUI: begin
        u_inst = u_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[u_inst.rd] = {u_inst.imm31_12, 12'b0};
      end
      AUIPC: begin
        u_inst = u_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[u_inst.rd] = pc + {u_inst.imm31_12, 12'b0};
      end

      // Integer register-register operations
      ADD: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] + rf[r_inst.rs2];
      end
      SLT: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] < rf[r_inst.rs2];
      end
      SLTU: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = $unsigned(rf[r_inst.rs1]) < $unsigned(rf[r_inst.rs2]);
      end
      AND: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] & rf[r_inst.rs2];
      end
      OR: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] | rf[r_inst.rs2];
      end
      XOR: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] ^ rf[r_inst.rs2];
      end
      SLL: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] << rf[r_inst.rs2][4:0];
      end
      SRL: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] >> rf[r_inst.rs2][4:0];
      end
      SUB: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] - rf[r_inst.rs2];
      end
      SRA: begin
        r_inst = r_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[r_inst.rd] = rf[r_inst.rs1] >>> rf[r_inst.rs2][4:0];
      end

      // Control transfer instructions
      JAL: begin
        j_inst = j_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = pc + assemble_j_imm(j_inst);
        rfn[j_inst.rd] = pc + 4;
      end
      JALR: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = rf[i_inst.rs1] + i_inst.imm11_0;
        pcn[0] = 0;  // LSB bit must be zero
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = pc + 4;
      end
      BEQ: begin
        b_inst = b_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = rf[b_inst.rs1] == rf[b_inst.rs2] ? pc + assemble_b_imm(inst) : pc + 4;
      end
      BNE: begin
        b_inst = b_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = rf[b_inst.rs1] != rf[b_inst.rs2] ? pc + assemble_b_imm(inst) : pc + 4;
      end
      BLT: begin
        b_inst = b_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = rf[b_inst.rs1] < rf[b_inst.rs2] ? pc + assemble_b_imm(inst) : pc + 4;
      end
      BLTU: begin
        b_inst = b_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = $unsigned(rf[b_inst.rs1]) < $unsigned(rf[b_inst.rs2]) ? pc + assemble_b_imm(inst) :
            pc + 4;
      end
      BGE: begin
        b_inst = b_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = rf[b_inst.rs1] >= rf[b_inst.rs2] ? pc + assemble_b_imm(inst) : pc + 4;
      end
      BGEU: begin
        b_inst = b_inst_t'(inst);
        pcn = $unsigned(rf[b_inst.rs1]) >= $unsigned(rf[b_inst.rs2]) ? pc + assemble_b_imm(inst) :
            pc + 4;
      end

      // Load and store instructions
      `define LADDR rf[i_inst.rs1] + i_inst.imm11_0
      LW: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = {mem[`LADDR+3], mem[`LADDR+2], mem[`LADDR+1], mem[`LADDR]};
      end
      LH: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = $signed({mem[`LADDR+1], mem[`LADDR]});
      end
      LHU: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = {mem[`LADDR+1], mem[`LADDR]};
      end
      LB: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = mem[`LADDR];
      end
      LBU: begin
        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
        rfn[i_inst.rd] = $unsigned(mem[`LADDR]);
      end

      SW, SH, SB: begin
        s_inst = s_inst_t'(inst);
        mem_wen = 1;
        mem_wdata = rf[s_inst.rs2];
        mem_waddr = rf[s_inst.rs1] + assemble_s_imm(s_inst);
      end

      // Memory-ordering instructions
      FENCE: ;

    endcase

    // Hardwire rf[0] to zero
    rfn[0] = 0;
  end
endmodule
Listing 99 code/riscv-single-cycle-boolean/mp_boolean.sv#
module mp_boolean (
    input clk,
    input [3:0] btn,
    output logic [15:0] led
);
  logic rst;
  mp #(
      .MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE("program.mem"),
      .MEM_DEPTH_LG2(4)
  ) mp_i (
      .*
  );
  always_comb begin
    led = 0;
    for (int reg_id = 10; reg_id <= 19; ++reg_id) led[reg_id-10] = mp_i.rf[reg_id][0];
  end
  assign rst = |btn;
endmodule

Solution to Exercise 30

  1. Block RAM does not have synchronous read capability. So we have to use distributed RAM.

  2. repo:code/mp-ram

    Listing 100 code/mp-ram-no-interface/mp_ram.sv#
    // RAM for the single-cycle microprocessor
    // - Two ports:
    //   1. Asynchronous read and synchronous write for data
    //   2. Asynchronous read for instructions
    // - `XLen` wide
    // - Byte enable signals for byte-wide store & load
    // - No support for unaligned addresses. LSBits removed.
    import mp_pkg::*;
    module mp_ram #(
        string INIT_HEX_FILE = "",  // Only used if non-empty
        int unsigned DEPTH_LG2 = 5  // In log2(word)
    ) (
        input clk,
    
        // Bus target
        word_signed daddr,  // Data address (Read & write)
        wdata,  // Written data
        output word_signed rdata,  // Read data
        input wsize_t wsize,  // Write size (0=>1b, 1=>2b, 2=4b)
    
        input  word_signed iaddr,  // Instruction address (Only read)
        output word_signed inst    // Instruction (read)
    );
      word mem[2**DEPTH_LG2];
      always_ff @(posedge clk)
        unique case (wsize)
          ZERO:  ;  // Do not write
          BYTE:  mem[to_word_addr(daddr)][8*daddr[1:0]+:8] <= wdata[8*daddr[1:0]+:8];
          HWORD: mem[to_word_addr(daddr)][16*daddr[1]+:16] <= wdata[16*daddr[1]+:16];
          WORD:  mem[to_word_addr(daddr)] <= wdata;
        endcase
    
      assign rdata = mem[to_word_addr(daddr)];
      assign inst  = mem[to_word_addr(iaddr)];
    
      initial begin
        // Read program and data memfile from command line in simulation only.
        // Synthesis cannot initialize memory using $value$plusargs (presumably).
    `ifndef SYNTHESIS
        string mem_file;
        if ($value$plusargs("mem-file=%s", mem_file)) begin
          $readmemh(mem_file, mem);
          $display("Initialized memory using %s.", mem_file);
        end
    `else
        if (INIT_HEX_FILE.len) begin
          $readmemh(INIT_HEX_FILE, mem);
          $display("Initialized memory using %s.", INIT_HEX_FILE);
        end
    `endif
      end
    endmodule
    
  3. In the synthesis report you should see a distributed RAM primitive like:

    Listing 101 code/mp-ram-no-interface/prj/prj.runs/synth_1/runme.log#
    Report Cell Usage: 
    +------+---------+------+
    |      |Cell     |Count |
    +------+---------+------+
    |1     |BUFG     |     1|
    |2     |LUT4     |     4|
    |3     |LUT5     |    32|
    |4     |RAM32X1D |    32|
    |5     |IBUF     |    47|
    |6     |OBUF     |    64|
    +------+---------+------+
    

    RAM32X1D is a 32 deep, 1 bit wide RAM. D stands for dual port and it allows us to access the instructions and data at the same time. We need 32 of them, because we have 32 bit data width.

    In the utilization report you find the primitives that the design element RAM32X1D is based on:

    Listing 102 code/mp-ram-no-interface/prj/prj.runs/synth_1/mp_ram_utilization_synth.rpt#
    | Ref Name | Used | Functional Category |
    +----------+------+---------------------+
    | RAMD32   |   64 |  Distributed Memory |
    | OBUF     |   64 |                  IO |
    | IBUF     |   47 |                  IO |
    | LUT5     |   32 |                 LUT |
    | LUT4     |    4 |                 LUT |
    | BUFG     |    1 |               Clock |
    +----------+------+---------------------+
    
    
    

    RAM32X1D requires two RAMD32 to carry out two read operations in parallel.

Solution to Exercise 31

  1. repo:code/riscv-single-cycle-ram, repo:code/riscv-single-cycle-ram-boolean

    Modifications:

    Listing 103 code/riscv-single-cycle-ram/mp.sv#
    --- /builds/fpga-lab/fpga-programming/code/riscv-single-cycle/mp.sv
    +++ /builds/fpga-lab/fpga-programming/code/riscv-single-cycle-ram/mp.sv
    @@ -4,52 +4,36 @@
     import riscv_instr::*;
     
     module mp #(
    -    string MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "",  // Only used if non-empty
    -    int unsigned MEM_DEPTH_LG2 = 10  // In bytes
    +    string RAM_INIT_HEX_FILE = "",  // Only used if non-empty
    +    int unsigned RAM_DEPTH_LG2 = 10  // In words
     ) (
         input clk,
         rst
     );
    -  byte mem[2**MEM_DEPTH_LG2];
    -  word_signed mem_waddr, mem_wdata;
    -  logic mem_wen;
       word_signed rf[RegfileSize], rfn[RegfileSize];  // Register file
       word_signed pc, pcn;  // Program counter
       word inst;  // Current instruction
     
    -  // assign inst = word'({<< byte{mem[pc+:4]}});
    -  // Unpacked array slicing not supported in Verilator 2024-05-22
    -  assign inst = {mem[pc+3], mem[pc+2], mem[pc+1], mem[pc]};
    -
    -  initial begin
    -    // Read program and data memfile from command line in simulation only.
    -    // Synthesis cannot initialize memory using $value$plusargs (presumably).
    -`ifndef SYNTHESIS
    -    string mem_file;
    -    if ($value$plusargs("mem-file=%s", mem_file)) begin
    -      $readmemh(mem_file, mem);
    -      $display("Initialized memory using %s.", mem_file);
    -    end
    -`else
    -    if (MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE.len) begin
    -      $readmemh(MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE, mem);
    -      $display("Initialized memory using %s.", MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE);
    -    end
    -`endif
    -  end
    -  // [valueplusargs-block-end]
    +  // verilator lint_off UNOPTFLAT
    +  word_signed ram_daddr, ram_wdata, ram_rdata;
    +  // verilator lint_on UNOPTFLAT
    +  wsize_t ram_wsize;
    +  mp_ram #(
    +      .INIT_HEX_FILE(RAM_INIT_HEX_FILE),
    +      .DEPTH_LG2(RAM_DEPTH_LG2)
    +  ) ram (
    +      .clk,
    +      .daddr(ram_daddr),
    +      .wdata(ram_wdata),
    +      .rdata(ram_rdata),
    +      .wsize(ram_wsize),
    +      .iaddr(pc),
    +      .inst (inst)
    +  );
     
       always_ff @(posedge clk, posedge rst) begin
         pc <= rst ? 0 : pcn;
         rf <= rst ? '{default: '0} : rfn;
    -    if (rst);
    -    else
    -      unique casez (inst)
    -        SW: {mem[mem_waddr+3], mem[mem_waddr+2], mem[mem_waddr+1], mem[mem_waddr]} <= mem_wdata;
    -        SH: {mem[mem_waddr+1], mem[mem_waddr]} <= mem_wdata[15:0];
    -        SB: mem[mem_waddr] <= mem_wdata[7:0];
    -        default: ;
    -      endcase
       end
     
       // Variables used in instruction parsing
    @@ -63,9 +47,9 @@
         rfn = rf;
         pcn = pc + 4;  // Increment as default
     
    -    mem_waddr = 0;
    -    mem_wdata = 0;
    -    mem_wen = 0;
    +    ram_daddr = 0;
    +    ram_wdata = 0;
    +    ram_wsize = ZERO;
     
         unique case (inst) inside
           // Integer register-immediate instructions
    @@ -198,33 +182,33 @@
           end
     
           // Load and store instructions
    -      `define LADDR rf[i_inst.rs1] + i_inst.imm11_0
    -      LW: begin
    -        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
    -        rfn[i_inst.rd] = {mem[`LADDR+3], mem[`LADDR+2], mem[`LADDR+1], mem[`LADDR]};
    -      end
    -      LH: begin
    -        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
    -        rfn[i_inst.rd] = $signed({mem[`LADDR+1], mem[`LADDR]});
    -      end
    -      LHU: begin
    -        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
    -        rfn[i_inst.rd] = {mem[`LADDR+1], mem[`LADDR]};
    -      end
    -      LB: begin
    -        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
    -        rfn[i_inst.rd] = mem[`LADDR];
    -      end
    -      LBU: begin
    -        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
    -        rfn[i_inst.rd] = $unsigned(mem[`LADDR]);
    +      LW, LH, LHU, LB, LBU: begin
    +        i_inst = i_inst_t'(inst);
    +        ram_daddr = rf[i_inst.rs1] + i_inst.imm11_0;
    +        unique casez (inst)
    +          LW:  rfn[i_inst.rd] = ram_rdata;
    +          LH:  rfn[i_inst.rd] = $signed(ram_rdata[ram_daddr[1]*16+:16]);
    +          LHU: rfn[i_inst.rd] = ram_rdata[ram_daddr[1]*16+:16];
    +          LB:  rfn[i_inst.rd] = $signed(ram_rdata[ram_daddr[1:0]*8+:8]);
    +          LBU: rfn[i_inst.rd] = ram_rdata[ram_daddr[1:0]*8+:8];
    +        endcase
           end
     
           SW, SH, SB: begin
             s_inst = s_inst_t'(inst);
    -        mem_wen = 1;
    -        mem_wdata = rf[s_inst.rs2];
    -        mem_waddr = rf[s_inst.rs1] + assemble_s_imm(s_inst);
    +        ram_wdata = rf[s_inst.rs2];
    +        ram_daddr = rf[s_inst.rs1] + assemble_s_imm(s_inst);
    +        unique casez (inst)
    +          SW: ram_wsize = WORD;
    +          SH: begin
    +            ram_wsize = HWORD;
    +            ram_wdata <<= ram_daddr[1] * 16;
    +          end
    +          SB: begin
    +            ram_wsize = BYTE;
    +            ram_wdata <<= ram_daddr[1:0] * 8;
    +          end
    +        endcase
           end
     
           // Memory-ordering instructions
    
    Listing 104 code/riscv-single-cycle-ram-boolean/mp_boolean.sv#
    --- /builds/fpga-lab/fpga-programming/code/riscv-single-cycle-boolean/mp_boolean.sv
    +++ /builds/fpga-lab/fpga-programming/code/riscv-single-cycle-ram-boolean/mp_boolean.sv
    @@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
     );
       logic rst;
       mp #(
    -      .MEM_INIT_HEX_FILE("program.mem"),
    -      .MEM_DEPTH_LG2(4)
    +      .RAM_INIT_HEX_FILE("program.mem"),
    +      .RAM_DEPTH_LG2(2)
       ) mp_i (
           .*
       );
    
  2. Listing 105 code/riscv-single-cycle-boolean/prj/prj.runs/impl_1/mp_boolean_utilization_placed.rpt#
    
    1. Slice Logic
    --------------
    
    +-------------------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+-------+
    |        Site Type        |  Used | Fixed | Prohibited | Available | Util% |
    +-------------------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+-------+
    | Slice LUTs              | 16815 |     0 |          0 |     32600 | 51.58 |
    |   LUT as Logic          | 16815 |     0 |          0 |     32600 | 51.58 |
    |   LUT as Memory         |     0 |     0 |          0 |      9600 |  0.00 |
    | Slice Registers         |  1535 |     0 |          0 |     65200 |  2.35 |
    |   Register as Flip Flop |  1535 |     0 |          0 |     65200 |  2.35 |
    |   Register as Latch     |     0 |     0 |          0 |     65200 |  0.00 |
    | F7 Muxes                |  1093 |     0 |          0 |     16300 |  6.71 |
    | F8 Muxes                |   154 |     0 |          0 |      8150 |  1.89 |
    +-------------------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+-------+
    * Warning! LUT value is adjusted to account for LUT combining.
    
    
    
    Listing 106 code/riscv-single-cycle-ram-boolean/prj/prj.runs/impl_1/mp_boolean_utilization_placed.rpt#
    
    1. Slice Logic
    --------------
    
    +----------------------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+-------+
    |          Site Type         |  Used | Fixed | Prohibited | Available | Util% |
    +----------------------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+-------+
    | Slice LUTs                 | 14225 |     0 |          0 |     32600 | 43.63 |
    |   LUT as Logic             | 14194 |     0 |          0 |     32600 | 43.54 |
    |   LUT as Memory            |    31 |     0 |          0 |      9600 |  0.32 |
    |     LUT as Distributed RAM |    31 |     0 |            |           |       |
    |     LUT as Shift Register  |     0 |     0 |            |           |       |
    | Slice Registers            |  1023 |     0 |          0 |     65200 |  1.57 |
    |   Register as Flip Flop    |  1023 |     0 |          0 |     65200 |  1.57 |
    |   Register as Latch        |     0 |     0 |          0 |     65200 |  0.00 |
    | F7 Muxes                   |   279 |     0 |          0 |     16300 |  1.71 |
    | F8 Muxes                   |     3 |     0 |          0 |      8150 |  0.04 |
    +----------------------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+-------+
    * Warning! LUT value is adjusted to account for LUT combining.
    
    
    

    The slice utilization has decreased.

Solution to Exercise 32

The phase frequency detector compares the frequency of the input signals. If the feedback signal has a lower frequency, it will increase the voltage so much that the input frequencies are the same again.

  1. Division not active: \(F_\mathrm{i} = F_\mathrm{o}\), no voltage rise in the VCO input.

  2. Division active: \(F_\mathrm{o}\) is divided by \(N\), so input frequencies are not equal anymore (\(F_\mathrm{i} \neq \frac{F_\mathrm{i}}{N}\)), thus voltage rises at VCO input to make up for this difference.

  3. Frequency detector increases the voltage so that \(F_\mathrm{i} \overset!= k \frac{F_\mathrm{i}}{N}\), so the multiplication factor \(k\) will be \(N\).

Solution to Exercise 38

For exchanging large amounts of data, microprocessor and the FPGA use the RAM. The high-performance ports are interconnected to the memory through a private interconnect called Programmable Logic to Memory Interconnect, where the general-purpose ports use the Central Interconnect. The Central Interconnect routes data from other peripherals, so data exchange through general-purpose ports will be slowed down by the peripherals.

Solution to Exercise 37

Examples:

  1. f1: memory-mapped bus interface for x, y and the return value, or simply a module with two 32 bit inputs and one 32 bit output with a valid signal

  2. f2: two memory-mapped interfaces like AMBA AXI that can read/write from/to two RAMs in parallel.

  3. f3’s input and f4’s output can be similar to f2’s interfaces, however f3’s output and f4’s input can be a FIFO-based interface, as these data are only exchanged between f3 and f4 and do not need to be part of a processor bus.

Solution to Exercise 39

The solution connects HP2 to the gmem1. HP1 could be used too, however I remember reading that HP0 and HP1 sharing some resources. TODO

repo:code/macc-double-channel-32bit-addr-pynq-z2